History class 06 NCERT

1. What where when and how
1. Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills on Af-Pak border - some of the first places where wheat and barley were grown and sheep, goat, cattle were reared (6000 BC). Rice was first grown north of Vindhyas. Garo hills also had early agriculture.
2. Manuscripts were written on palm leaves or bark of birch tree (Himalayas).
2. Earliest people
1. Kurnool caves has evidence of familiarity with fire. Paleolithic site.
2. Hungsi - tools made out of local limestone.
3. Paleolithic - stone age. Longest stretch of time. Covers 99% of human history.
4. Mesolithic - middle stone. 12,000-10,000 years ago. Change in environment (ice age ends), grasslands develop. Stone tools (called microliths).
5. Neolithic - from about 10,000 years ago.
3. Growing food
1. Domestication - First animal to be tamed wild ancestor of dog. Teeth and horns of wild animals are larger than those of domesticated ones. Earliest plants were wheat and barley.
2. Sites where grains and bones have been found - Kashmir (Burzahom had dug houses), UP, Bihar (Chirand), AP (Hallur).
3. Mehrgarh, near Bolan pass, is one of the earliest villages we know about. They kept sheep and goat. Square and rectangular houses. IVC is continuation of the neolithic Mehrgarh culture 
4. Daojali Hading (Brahmaputra valley) - had jadeite, which may have been brought from China.
4. Earliest cities
1. Cities were divided into two or more parts. West was smaller but higher and had citadel. Part to east was larger but lower. Bricks were laid in interlocking pattern that made walls strong.
2. Houses were 1 or 2 storeys high. Separate bathing area. Covered drains.
3. Copper and bronze to make tools, weapons, vessels. Gold and silver to make ornaments and vessels. Faience was an artificial material used to make beads, bangles, earrings.
4. Imported items - copper, tin, gold, silver, precious stones.
5. Harappans were aware of binary and decimal system and used it for measurement
6. Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard. Ploughs made of wood was used to dig earth. Some form of irrigation may have been used. Reared - cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo.

City	State	Special feature
Harappa	Pakistan	only site which yields the evidence of coffin burial. A copper bullock cart is another notable finding.
Mohenjodaro	Pakistan	Great Bath (no stone use), elaborate store houses, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains, cotton clothes. Dancing girl, seal of Pashupati, bearded priest
Kalibangan	Rajasthan	Fire altar, oldest ploughed field, bricks are earthen ones, no drainage
Rakhigarhi	Haryana
Banawali
Lothal	Gujarat	Fire altar, Semi precious stones available. Coastal town, direct sea trade links with Mesopotamia
Dholavira	Gujarat	Divided into 3 parts. Large open area for public ceremonies.

5. Vedic period
1. Vedas - Rigveda has a dialog bw Vishwamitra and rivers Beas and Sutlej. Many prayers for cattle, children and horses. Battles on horse chariots fought to capture cattle and lands.
1. Groups who are described in terms of their work - brahmins and rajas.
2. People or community were described as jana or vish (vaishya).
2. Practice of megaliths began around 3000 years ago (1000 BC) and was prevalent throughout Deccan and south, North east and Kashmir. Dead were buried with distinctive pots - Black and Red Ware, tools and weapons, horses, ornaments of stone and gold. Rich and poor distinction was clear.
3. Cist burial is a small stone-built coffin like box to keep the dead persons while Dolmen burial is like a single chamber megalithic tomb having two or more vertical megaliths 
4. Inamgaon (Maharashtra) - buried head towards north, sometimes within the houses, vessels that contained food and water.
6. Post vedic
1. Some men now became recognized as rajas by performing very big sacrifices. Asvamedha was one such ritual (horse was let loose, if wandered into other kingdoms and they stopped it, those kings had to fight. If horse allowed to pass, suzerainty accepted and gifts offered).
2. Rajas who performed big sacrifices were known as rajas of janpadas. Painted Grey Ware is from this time period, was used for special occasions
3. 
4. Mahajanpadas were fortified. Armies were maintained with regular salaries. Instead of gifts brought by people, rajas now started collecting taxes
1. 1/6 of crop produce. One man day on craftsperson. Herders had to provide animals and animals produce. Taxes on trade. Hunters had to provide forest produce.
5. Major changes - iron ploughs and transplanting of paddy. Dasas and kammakaras (landless) had to do this work.
6. Rise of Magadha - rivers flowing through it made transport easy, easy supply of water, and fertile lands, elephants in the region for army.
7. Vajji - capital at Vaishali. Was under gana or sangha form of govt - many rulers (not women). Both Buddha and Mahavira came from such ganas.
7. New movements
1. Buddha belonged to Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. Taught in Prakrit.
2. Upanishads - means approaching and sitting near. Texts contain conversations bw teachers and students. Most thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Exceptions - Gargi and Satyakama Jabala. Upanishad thinkers believed that atman (individual soul) and brahman (universal soul) were ultimately one.
3. Mahavira - kshatriya prince of Lichchhavis (Vajji sangha). Taught in Prakrit. Jainism was supported mainly by traders as farmers had to kill insects to protect crops.
4. Earliest viharas were made of wood and then of brick. Often land was donated by rich merchant or landowner or king.
5. Brahmins developed the system of ashramas around this period - brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and sanyasa.
8. Ashoka
1. Megasthenese was an ambassador sent to Chandragupta by Greek ruler of West Asia Seleucus Nicator. Wrote - king surrounded by armed women, never sleeps in same bedroom for 2 nights, trained parrots circle about head of emperor.
2. Inscriptions have been found all over the country (except maybe NE and TN/KL). Written in Prakrit (Brahmi script).
3. Ashoka's dhamma - appointed officials known as dhamma mahamatta. Sent messengers to Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka. Ideas - being gentle with slaves and servants, respecting one's elders, giving gifts to monks, respect other's religion.
4. use of stone started from the time of Asoka. Even of the numerous monuments of Asoka, only a few have remained. Only remaining stupa is at Sanchi.
9. Towns and villages (1st CE)
1. In Tamil Nadu, large landowners (vellalars), ploughmen (uzhavar) and landless labor (kadaisiyar) and slaves (adimai).
2. In North, village headman (gram bhojaka) which was a hereditary post and was the largest landowner. Judicial and police functions. Independent farmers known as grihapatis.
3. Earliest coins were in use for 500 years were punched coins, made of - silver and copper. Designs were punched on silver or copper.
4. Shrenis were associations of craft persons and merchants. Also served as banks where rich people deposited money.
5. Arikamedu (Pondicherry) was a famous sea port - Roman goods have been found here. Mentioned in Ptolemy's Geographia as Poduke
10. Traders, kings and pilgrims (before Gupta)
1. Muvendars (three chiefs) became powerful in ancient Tamil. Puhar (Kaveripattinam) was a famous sea port of Cholas in the Nagapattinam district which traded with Roman empire. Madurai was capital of Pandyas.
2. Did not collect regular taxes. Demanded and received gifts. Sangam poets composed poems in praise of these chiefs who rewarded them.
3. Gautamiputra Satakarni is known because of inscription composed by his mother, Gautami Balashri. Lords of the Dakshinpatha.
4. Kushanas controlled the silk route from their major power center - Peshawar and Mathura. Hence a branch of silk road came to Indus. Kushanas issued gold coins - one of the earliest rulers to do so.
5. Kanishka organized Buddhist council. His court poet, Ashvagosha composed biography of Buddha called Buddhacharita, writing in Sanskrit. Mahayana developed.
6. Travelers - Fa Hien (Chandra Gupta II, went back by sea. Noticed plight of untouchables), Xuan Zang (Harsha, went back by land), I-Qing.
1. Faxian's visit to India occurred during the reign of Chandragupta II. However, he mentioned nothing about Guptas.
7. Beginning of Bhakti - present in Bhagavad Gita. Emphasized devotion and individual worship of a god rather performance of elaborate sacrifices.
11. Gupta Empire
1. Prashashti is a Sanskrit word meaning, in praise of.
2. Samudragupta - inscriptions were written by Harisena. Harisena was also maha-danda-nayaka (chief judicial officer). SG's achievements
1. Rulers of Aryavarta - uprooted and their kingdoms made part of Gupta empire
2. 12 Rulers of dakshinapath - surrendered and were allowed to rule
3. Gana sanghas of neighboring states - paid tributes and followed his orders
4. Rulers of SL, NW - submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage
3. Both father (CG) and son used title maharaj-adhiraja.
4. Harshavardhana - his biography Harshacharita was written by Banabhatta. Xuan Zang spent time at his court. Successful in east, nowhere else.
5. Chalukyas - capital at Aihole which developed as a religious center. Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently raided one another's land.
1. Pulakeshin II is known from his prashasti composed by court poet Ravikirti.
6. Imp posts around this time
1. Kumar-amatya: important minister
2. Sandhi-vigrahika: minister of war and peace
3. Nagara-shreshthi: chief banker/merchant
4. Sarthavaha: leader of merchant caravans
5. Prathama-kulika: chief craftsman
6. Kayasthas: scribes
7. Samantas: military leaders who provided troops in lieu of land
7. Assemblies of southern kingdom
1. Sabha - assembly of brahmin land owners
2. Ur - village assembly with non-brahmin land owners
3. Nagaram - association of merchants
12. Buildings and paintings
1. Iron pillar at Mehrauli -generally identified with Chandragupta II
2. Stupas - generally have a small box containing bodily remains of Buddha or his followers
3. Kalidasa - flourished during the reign of Chandragupta II. Plays - Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Malvikaagnimitram, Vikramorasiyam. Poems- Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa
4. Aryabhata, mathematician and astronomer - wrote Aryabhatiyam and Aryasiddhanta. Day and night caused by rotation on axis, explained eclipses, calculated circumference of a circle.